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and knights, but at the will and suf–
ferance of the priest. One sword,
moreover, ought to be under the
other, and the temporal authority to
be subjected to the spiritual."
But this vigorous assertion of
Papal power and rights comes too
late. By the end of Boniface's reign,
the Papacy is no longer able to
withstand the growing indepen–
dence in the secular realm.
Unam Sanctum
receives violent
opposition from many quarters,
most notably from Philip the Fair
of France. In a letter to Boniface,
the French king dares to refer to
the pontiff as "You r Supreme
Foolishness."
The Papacy is on a downward
sl ide. With each passing year, it
becomes clearer to all that the days
when the Papacy could
command
are gone. Now it can only influence
and
advise.
" Babylonian Captivity"
Because of the unsett ling political
conditions in Rome, Pope Clement
V ( 1305-1314) takes up residence
at the city of Avignon, a Papal pos–
session in France, in 1305. There
he is subject to powerful French
influence.
For just more than 70 years–
from 1305 to 1377- the Popes
remain at Avignon. The Papacy
becomes a too! of the French court.
This period will be called the "Bab–
ylonian Captivity" of the Church–
an allusion to the 70-year exile of
the Jews to Babylon in the sixth
century B.C.
The loss to Papal prestige is
enormous. Leadership in Europe
has clearly passed from the Pope to
secular rulers.
The German princes believe that
Rome is the only rightful capital
for the Church . Finally, in 1377,
Pope Gregory X I (1370-1378)
returns to Rome from Avignon,
ending the "Babylonian Captivity."
He dies the next year.
Rival Popes
Urban VI, an l talian, is elected as
Pope by popular demand in 1378.
But French cardinals hold that the
election of Urban is invalid because
of outside pressure on the voters. A
Frenchman, Clement VII , is e lect–
ed Pope and rules from French–
dominated Avignon.
34
There are now
two Popes!
Each
excommunicates the other as the
"Antichrist." The states of Europe
support one or the other according
to political considerations.
The Papacy is rent asunder.
Each section of Christendom
declares the other "lost." Many are
uncertain which claimant actually
possesses Papal authority. For near–
ly four decades, Western Christen–
dom is divided. History will refer to
the situation as the "Western
Schism" (or "Great Schism").
Neither Pope will abdicate. Nei–
ther will arbitrate differences.
In 1409, cardinals from both
camps meet at the Council of Pisa.
They seek to end the schism by
deposing both pontiffs and electing
a third man, Alexander V. But the
two "deposed" Popes refuse to
resign.
Now there are
three
claimants to
the Papal chair!
This intolerable situation is
finally rectified in 1417 . The
Council of Constance deposes the
three rival Popes and unanimously
elects Pope Mar tín V. The Great
Schism is ended, but the Papacy
has suffered irreparable loss of
prestige.
The Habsburgs Return
By the 15th century, Germany is
a jumble of virtually independent
duchies, archduchies, margravates,
counties and free cities-collec–
tively known as "the Germanies."
There is no real "Germany" in a
unified national sense. The Ger–
man king
reigns,
but does little
ruling.
Otto the Great had started
Germany on the way to becoming
a strong, unified s tate, but it did
not work out as he had planned.
During the decades of tria! for
Western Europe and the Church,
an influential family has been
working quietly behind the scenes.
lt
has added to its ancestral land
holdings and consolidated its power
base. It is now ready to make its
influence felt.
That family is the House of
Habsburg.
Having been held by members of
the House of Luxembourg from
1347 to 1437, the German imperial
crown now comes again into the
possession of the Habsburgs. 1n
1438, the Habsburg Albert 11 of
Austria is made king of Germany.
He is recognized as Holy Roman
Emperor, but is not crowned.
Henceforth, the imperial title
will be hereditary in the Habsburg
family. The House of Habsburg is
on its way to becoming the most
potent political force in Europe.
In 1440, Frederick III, a cousin
of the now-deceased Albert 1l, is
named German king. A dozen
years later he is crowned Holy
Roman Emperor in Rome by the
Pope. He will be the last Emperor
to be crowned in that city. The
deteriorating position of Rome in
European affai rs is thus further
highlighted.
Frederick 111 has a mysterious
royal monogram: the vowels of the
alphabet (A.E. I.O.U.). Jts mean–
ing? They are the first letters of the
words
Austriae est imperare orbi
universo-"All
the world is subject
to Austria." The House of Aus–
tria-the Habsburg dynasty- has
indeed set high goals!
Dynastic Marrlages
Maximilian l of Habsburg, son of
Frederick 111 , becomes Emperor in
1493. He envisions himself as a
new Constantine. His mission is to
save Christendom from the scourge
of the Turks.
ln 1453, the Ottoman Turks,
under Mohammed the Conqueror,
had captured Byzantium (Constan–
tinople), ending the Eastern Ro–
man Empire. After centuries of
decline, the last vestige of the
Roman Empire in the East is gone.
Many historians will later regard
1453 as the ending date for the
Middle Ages.
By a calculated policy of dynas–
tic marriages, the H absburgs
strengthen and enlarge their power.
The marriage of Maximilian to
Mary of Burgundy, heiress of the
Netherlands, adds the Dutch king–
dom to the Habsburg domains.
A son of this marriage, Philip,
later marries J oanna, daughter of
Ferdinand and Jsabella of Spain.
Juan, the only son of Ferdinand
and Isabella, marries Maximilian's
daughter Margaret, linking Cas–
tile and Aragon in Spain with
Austria.
Global Empire
It is now the year 1500. A son is
The
PLAIN TRUTH