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The reign of Conrad's son Henry
111
{l
039-1056) marks the zenith
of German imperial power.
It
is during the reign of Henry
III as Holy Roman Emperor that
the final schism between the West–
ern (Roman) and Eastern (Ortho–
dox) churches takes place. The
break had existed for centuries and
had grown progressively wider. In
1054 it becomes formal and com–
plete when the Pope at Rome and
the Patriarch of Constantinople
excommunicate each other.
Not long afterward come two
further developments in the reli–
gious sphere. In 1059 Pope Nicho–
las 11 convenes the Lateran Coun–
cil, which decrees that future Popes
will be elected by a college (group
or body) of cardinals. This action
takes away the Emperor's influence
in Papal elections. In the same
year, the Synod of Melfi prohibits
marriage of the Catholic clergy.
The decree of the Lateran Coun–
cil sparks a major rupture between
Germany and Rome . Now begins
the great medieval struggle be–
tween the Empire and Papacy.
Two Powers
Henry 111 is succeeded by his
young son Henry IV (1056-1106).
He will play a major role in one of
the most famous episodes in medie–
val history-a personal confronta–
tion between Pope and Emperor.
· The crowning of Charlemagne in
Á.D. 800 by Pope Leo
111
had ini–
tiated a close alliance between Pope
and Empire. This "marriage" had
formally linked the spiritual power
of the Pope with the temporal
power of the Emperor.
Thc Em
p1.
e is t hereafter re–
garded as God's chosen
political
organization over Western Chris–
tendom. T he Church at Rome is
viewed as God's chosen instrument
in
religious
matters. Pope and
Emperor are regarded as God's
vice-regents on earth.
This concept perhaps will be
best summarized late in the 19th
century by Pope Leo XIII: "The
Almighty has appo inted the
charge of the human race between
two powers, the ecclesiastical and
the civil, the one being set over
divine, the other over human
things."
Leo will also point out that
November / December 1983
"Church and State are like soul
and body and both must be united
in order to live and function right–
ly."
This intimate alliance of Church
and State serves the needs of both
institutions. The Empire exercises
its political and military powers to
defend religion and enforce reli–
gious uniformity. The Church, in
turn, acts as a "glue" for Europe,
holding together the differing
nationaiities and cultures within
the Empire by the tie· of common
religion.
As Leo XIII will also note in
retrospect, "The Roman Pontiffs,
by the institution of the Holy
Empire, consecrated the political
power in a wonderful manner."
This harmonious ideal in
Despite their incessant
rivalry, the Papacy
and Empire
will
remain
closely associated
throughout the Middle
Ages. Their
mutual need for each
other
will
override
disagreements of lesser
importance.
Church-State relations, however, is
never completely realized. The
respective powers and privileges of
Church and Empire are not clearly
defined. The result is frequent con–
flict between Emperor and Pope for
the leadership of Christian Eu–
rope.
Master of Emperors
Pope Gregory VII comes to the
Papal throne in 1073. He leaves no
doubt as to his position. "The Pope
is the
master
of Emperors!" he
declares. A stern idealist, Gregory
is determined to subordinate the
authority of the Emperor to that of
the Pope.
Gregory insists that the Pope is
above all nations and independent
of every temporal sovereign,
responsible only to God. The su–
premacy of Church over Empire, he
asserts, is symbolized by the tradi–
tional crowning of the Holy Roman
Emperors by the Popes in Rome–
publicly demonstrating that all
political power comes from God by
way of the Roman Pontiff.
Henry IV is not impressed by
such arguments. He becomes
embroiled in a bitter dispute with
Pope Gregory. The controversy
focuses on an issue that has been a
continuing irritant in Church-State
relations: !ay investiture.
The question is whether secular
rulers should
be
able to appoint
bishops and abbots and invest them
with symbols of spiritual authority.
Emperors have long used-and
abused-such control over Church
offices to their own ends. Gregory
wants it to stop. ·
Henry defies the Pope, de–
nounces him and attempts to have
him deposed. The headstrong Hen–
ry ends a letter to Pope Gregory
with the curse, "Down, down, to be
damned through all the ages!"
Gregory is not intimidated. The
controversy escalates. It is a life–
and-death struggle between the
Papacy and German imperial
powe"r!
Gregory is determined to free the
Church from secular control. He
fi nally excommunicates the
unyielding Henry. This act ion
absolves all Henry's subjects from
their oaths of allegiance to the
Emperor, and triggers a baronía!
revolt in Germany.
Henry's demise appears immi–
nent. He now sees clearly that
imperial power depends on the sup–
port of the Church. To save his
throne, Henry must make peace
with thc Pope.
1n January 1077, Henry journeys
to a castle at Canossa in northern
Italy where Pope Gregory is tempo–
rarily staying. For three days the
Emperor humiliates himself by
standing barefoot and in sackcloth
·in the snow outside Gregory's win–
dow. Gregory finally grants absolu–
tion, and Henry is reconciled to the
Church.
The imperial capitulation at
Canossa comes to symbolize the
submission of the State to the
Church. But
it
is only
á
temporary
victory for the Church.
Soon after Canossa, the struggle
breaks out again. In 1122 the Con- .
11